Race Relations

Unit 2: Racist Ideology

Cultural Aspects Historical Issues Race Relations Contemporary Issues

Unit 1: Cultural Mapping Unit 2: Racisim Unit 3: Power Unit 4: Reconciliation

2.01

Constructed identities and the idea of 'race'

What is the history of the word 'race'? How was is first used, and when did it begin to have ethnic connotations?

The following definition of Race is provided on page 22 of Race Relations A Learners Guide:

In 1570 'race' was used in the English language to mean descendents with a common ancestor. The term was still used in this way, referring to 'generations' in 174. In 1600 it was also being used to mean tribe or nation of people; and by 1842 it was it was being used to mean 'ethnic stock'.

The next extract, from the UNESCO Statement of Race, cited on page 9 of Unit 2 of Race Relations A, tells us that 'race' is historically and socially constructed according to how we map our world. I tells us how the negative use of the word 'race' reveals racist prejudice. Such prejudice in Australia has its historical roots in European social history - the European story of how they viewed Aboriginal people. Not all cultures, the UNESCO Statement says, practice racism. Traditional Aboriginal culture certainly did not. The current 'anti-colonial revolution' is opening our minds to seeing past such aggressive and discriminatory behaviours.

Racist doctrines lack lack any scientific basis whatever...The human problems arising from so-called 'race' relationship are social in origin...Racism has historical roots. It has not been a universal phenomenon...The anti-colonial revolution...has opened up new possibilities for eliminating the scourge of racism.

For whoever is in power at any particular time, it is in their interests for everyone to share their beliefs and practices - to go to the same church and follow the same 'map'. Can all people view the world from the same perspective as that of the ruling class? No. Rulers rule because they have people beneath them to rule. Their perspective is that of the ruling class. Those who are ruled cannot by definition see from their vantage point. Hearts and minds are not changed by issuing edicts, or of issuing new maps for people to follow. Is having power over other people an appropriate model for civilisation? Are there other ways of living together on the earth?

What have been the major phases in Western perceptions about 'race'?

Four phases of Western perceptions of 'race' are identified on pages 1-12 in Unit 2 of Race Relations A.

In the 'first' phase, the word 'race' was not used. However, other terms were used to differentiate between groups which seem racist in their use, for example 'Christian' and 'heathen'. These words were defined by Christians to distinguish themselves from the 'others', who were considered uncivilised. Other words used to differentiate between people according to religious and cultural values were 'believers' versus 'pagan', or 'heretic'. When Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in the fourth century AD, those who held onto their ancient beliefs and rituals were accused of 'paganism'. When the Medieval Christians crusaded against Islam, they referred derogatorily to the Islamics ad 'infidels'. The word 'Jew' received negative connotations when used by the Christians who were persecuting them. Christian religious beliefs at the time upheld the doctrine of a 'Great Chain of Being', according to which every living thing was mapped and given an hierarchical status by their God. The high status of women in pre-Christian beliefs and practices challenged the ruling parties, and so women who were seen to have any special abilities of power (for example Joan of Arc), were victimised, branded as witches and burnt at the stake.

The second phase in the perceptions of 'race' , was largely defined by Christians according to the story of the Tower of Babel. The word 'race' had entered the English language in the early 16th century, coinciding with the early period of Western colonial expansion. 'European and American slave traders transported about 10 million Africans to the Americas.' (Hutchinson, F., 2003; Unit 1, p 11) According to the story of the Tower of Babel all humans originally spoke one language. Together they aspired to know what they believed God knew, and began to build a tower up to the heavens. God was angry. His view was that because Adam and Eve had fallen from innocence in the Garden of Eden, it was inappropriate for humans to have access to his knowledge. He ordained that they all speak separate languages. Unable to communicate with each other, humans could no longer work together to complete the tower. According to the Bible, humans then formed separate 'races' and dispersed around the world. For the colonials, this story offered a possible explanation for the existence of the different races they 'discovered'. In the story of God banning the building of the Babel tower and the people dispersing, the journeys of 'races' such as Australian Aboriginal people, American Indians and Maoris, were 'mapped' according to an old Christian belief. This helped the early explorers to see these people as part of their story, either as humans 'fallen' from grace, just waiting for their civilising influence, or as 'noble savages', 'in their lineage or ancestral ties as closer to what had been lost when Adam and Eve had been exiled from the Garden of Eden'. ..Ideas about 'advanced civilisation' rather than 'race' were used to assert superiority in the initial phase of European imperialism.'(Hutchinson, F., 2003; Unit 1, p 9) This attitude sowed the seeds for colonial paternalism.

The third phase in the perception of 'race', from the 19th century to World War 11, was heavily defined in the name of science. Misinterpretations of Darwin's theory of the 'Origin of Species' were applied to societies of people and justified the treatment of indigenous peoples as inferior. This was the period of the Industrial Revolution in Europe, and the height of Western imperialism, where the race was on to colonise Africa, Asia and the Pacific. However, there was resistance from such people as Gandhi in South Africa and India, and the Cumeragunja protests and strike in Australia.

In the fourth phase, between the late 20th century and the early 21st century, the idea of 'race' as 'biological destiny' was discredited through international outrage at the horror of Nazi Germany's racist violence against Jews. This was the period of anti-colonial, human rights and anti-racist movements. It was the time of Nelson Mandela and the anti-apartheid movement in Africa, Martin Luther King and the American Civil Rights movement, and of civil rights and Aboriginal land rights in Australia.

2.02

In Gordon Bennett's painting, 'Myth of the Western Man - White Man's Burden' the dates of some of the most violent atrocities of white people against Aboriginal people loom from a symbolic representation of the land. The image parodies the once popular view that white men brought the virtues of civilization to Australia. For example, 1788 - White invasion; 1804 - First massacre of Aboriginal people at Risdon Cove; 1838 - Myall Creek Massacre. Here is a map of the country from an Aboriginal perspective.

I find a history book that my step-mother used at school during World War two. A map of the 'Commonwealth of Australia' is titled 'Australasia Exploration and Settlement.' Coloured areas indicate the years between which there were 'Districts settled', from the earliest (1788-1830) districts around the coast and then later moving further and further inland. This is clearly a mpa of imperial expansion across a colony, with all place names in English. "Unsettled and arid areas' remain uncoloured. They were no use to the pastoralists. Tracks taken by 'Australian explorers' are marked in red, with black lines showing routes of British navigators in the surrounding sea.

2.04

The settlers were transplanting a policy of possessive individualism, hierarchy and inequality. Aboriginal society was reciprocal and materially egalitarian although there were important political and religious inequalities based on age and sex. To such diametrically opposed societies could not merge without conflict...

Henry Reynolds cited in page 22 in Unit 2 of Race Relations A.

2.06

Phrenology

Phrenology was the first of a series of pseudo-scientific theories popular in the nineteenth century that were used to justify the patronizing, if not blatant racist, attitudes towards Aboriginal people. The Oxford Dictionary defines it as 'The scientific study or theory of the mental faculties.' By studying the bumps on the human scull, phrenologists believed they could determine a person's level of intelligence, and what type of 'character' they were. They were brought in as 'experts' by the influential colonialists, to be told what they wanted to hear about: the superiority of the white man.

Henry Reynolds, cited on page 27 (Unit 2, Race Relations A) relates a most insidious view put about by a champion of phrenology, George Combe in the 1820's. Combe wrote that the Aborigines were 'distinguished by great deficiencies in moral and intellectual organs...demonstrated by specimens in most Phrenological collections.' The organs used for 'reflecting, intellect, Ideality, Conscientiousness and Benevolence' were 'greatly inferior in size.'

Geoff Page's poem, The Phrenologist (cited on pages 29-30 of Unit 2, Race Relations A), is set in 19th century London. Reading it as I stay in this city over two winter months, I can easily imagine his phrenologist pausing at the door and smiling arrogantly, as...'The foggy street is full of cabs and rich with confirmation'. He smiles with confirmation of his superiority over an Aboriginal skull he has just examined.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Hutchinson, F., 2003, Race Relations A Learner's Guide., Aboriginal Programs Unit, NSW DET, TAFE NSW, Open Training and Education Network (OTEN).

Fforde, C., 1997, Controlling the Dead: an analysis of the collecting and repatriation of Aboriginal human remains.

Muir, R. & Philip, G. 1939, Philip's New School Atlas of Universal History, The London Geographical Institute, London.

Bibliography

Sheridan, J. & Tranter, J. 2000, Aspects of Cultural Studies A Learner's Guide, Open Training and Education Network, Sydney.

Isaacs, J. 1987 Australian Dreaming, 40,000 Years of Aboriginal History, Lansdowne Press, Sydney.

Benterrak, Mueke, Roe 1984 Reading the Country, Freemantle Arts Centre Press

Ngankat-kalo: Aboriginal Education , http://www.vaeai.org.au/timeline/1901.html [Online accessed 21 August 2006]